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Descartes: A Very Short Introduction explores the life and work of a man who made fundamental contributions to physics, mathematics, and optics, and reported useful observations in meteorology and physiology. Had he confined himself to the natural sciences, his achievement would have been remarkable enough. But his range was considerably wider. His famous statement Cogito, ergo sum is the first principle of his metaphysics, his theory of what has to be known for stable and exact science to be possible. This VSI shows that Descartes was, essentially, an advocate and practitioner of a new mathematical approach to physics, and that he developed his metaphysics to support his scientific programme.Less

A foundational moment in the history of modern European thought, the Enlightenment continues to be a reference point for philosophers, scholars, and opinion-formers. Enlightenment: A Very Short Introduction offers a concise historical introduction to the Enlightenment as an intellectual movement of eighteenth-century Europe. Discussing its intellectual achievements, it also explores how its supporters exploited new ways of communicating their ideas to a wider public, creating a new ‘public sphere’ for critical discussion of the moral, economic, and political issues facing their societies. But what is the relationship between the historical Enlightenment and the idea of ‘Enlightenment’, and can these two understandings be reconciled?Less

Hume: A Very Short Introduction considers one of the greatest of all British philosophers, acknowledged by his contemporaries as a pivotal figure of the Enlightenment. A central theme of his philosophy is the conviction that questions traditionally thought of as completely independent of the scientific realm's questions about the mind, about morality, and about God, for example, are actually best explained using experimental methods. Hume's ‘naturalist’ approach to a wide variety of philosophical topics resulted in highly original theories about perception, self-identity, causation, morality, politics, and religion, all of which are discussed here. This VSI also gives an account of Hume's life and character, and includes quotations from Hume's writings.Less

Kant: A Very Short Introduction tackles this exceptionally complex subject, exploring the background to Kant's work and showing why the Critique of Pure Reason has proved so enduring. Kant is arguably the most influential modern philosopher, but also one of the most difficult to understand. The depth and complexity of Kant's philosophy are such that it is only after complete immersion that the importance of its questions, and the imaginative power of its answers, can be understood. Kant aimed to draw the limits of human understanding. Ultimately, he felt compelled to transcend them.Less

Leibniz: A Very Short Introduction discusses the philosophy of the German polymath Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) and his desire for systematic reform and advancement of all sciences and establishment of a stable and just political order. It introduces the fundamental principles of Leibniz’s thought and his theories of truth and knowledge. Exploring Leibniz’s contributions to logic, mathematics, physics, and metaphysics, it considers how his theories sat alongside his concerns with politics, diplomacy, and a range of practical reforms. Discussing Leibniz’s theories of possible worlds, it concludes by looking at what is ultimately real in the world we experience, and Leibniz’s response to the problem of evil through his theodicy.Less

Locke: A Very Short Introduction unravels the meaning of John Locke's political thought and his contribution to English ideology. One of the greatest English philosophers of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, he argued in his masterpiece, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, that our knowledge is founded in experience and reaches us principally through our senses; but its message has been curiously misunderstood. This VSI shows how Locke arrived at his theory of knowledge, and how his exposition of the liberal values of toleration and responsible government formed the backbone of enlightened European thought of the eighteenth century.Less

Spinoza: A Very Short Introduction presents a systematic analysis of Spinoza's thought by describing the contours of this complex system of thought, and shows its relevance to today's intellectual preoccupations. Benedict de Spinoza (1632–77) was at once the father of the Enlightenment and the last sad guardian of the medieval world. In his brilliant synthesis of geometrical method, religious sentiment, and secular science, he attempted to reconcile the conflicting moral and intellectual demands of his epoch, and to present a vision of humanity as simultaneously bound by necessity and eternally free.Less