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The slave trade shaped American history. By 1860, nearly 90 percent of African Americans living in America were slaves. ‘1850–1865: Slavery and Civil War’ considers the importance of slavery to America in the nineteenth century. The story of slavery has many dimensions: slavery was an essential part of the southern economy and roiled national politics. The Civil War ended slavery. Full equality would take much longer. Lincoln went to war to save the Union, not to end slavery. He presided over a divided cabinet and nation. Emancipation gradually emerged as a war aim, reflecting abolitionist pressure and the escaped slaves who fled to Union camps and aided the war effort. By 1877, slavery was no more. ...Less

‘Freedom's ferment, 1750–1848’ asks what slavery meant for women, white and black. What would it take to win the freedom of both slaves and women, and who would plead their cause? It describes the story of Sally Hemings, a slave in the household of Thomas Jefferson who went on to bear his children. The American Revolution did not radically reshape women's lives, especially when it came to political rights and legal status, but it did provide openings, especially for elite white women, to play larger roles in the new democracy. Women increased participation in religious benevolence, antislavery activism, and women's rights. It also saw the resumption of an expansive westward movement of peoples. ...Less

‘The challenges of citizenship, 1848–1920’ outlines the pressing issues of American life from the Civil War through to World War I. The activism of women such as Ida Wells-Barnet describes the struggle for African Americans to find political and economic justice after emancipation. Jim Crow segregation and hardening racial attitudes made free life for African Americans very difficult. The Civil War also acted as an important spur to industrialization. Immigration and female wage labor was central to this surge. The growth of higher education was an important precondition for women's new public engagement. The final push for suffrage, which was part of the larger Progressive era reform movement, is also described. ...Less

The beginnings of nationhood were likely to be tough. Freedom also brought social and economic changes, reformist enthusiasm, religious fever, and cultural creativity. ‘1789–1850: The promise and perils of nationhood’ looks at the struggles and triumphs in politics, economics, society, and culture in the new America as it formed its identity over the sixty years following independence. Secure in their independence, Americans exuded confidence as the nineteenth century advanced. In 1850, the U.S. white population had increased five fold since 1790. Population growth, geographic expansion, and a growing transportation infrastructure fueled economic development. However, below the creativity and energy of this nation of freedom and equality lay the reality of slavery. ...Less

Industrialization sparked a series of social changes as people poured into the cities. The new capitalist elite flaunted its wealth and political might, and class divisions increased. ‘1866–1900: Industrialization and its consequences’ examines the profound effects of the industrial revolution in America and the consequences for society. These decades saw a rise in racism. Some commentators viewed America's laissez-faire capitalist system as the path to progress, others felt uneasy. Industrialization had an impact on American life at all levels. In just fifty years, America changed from an agarian society to an urban-industrial one with a strong agricultural hinterland. As industrialization proceeded, Americans began to look towards reassessing America's global role. ...Less

In the aftermath of the American Revolution, the framers of the Constitution confronted the task of forging a new national identity. “Mass culture and mass politics, 1800–1860” describes a surging phase of modernization in the United States between the Revolution and the Civil War, fueled by new technologies of communication and transportation. It outlines the burgeoning working class and a new middle class born of a market revolution and abstract economic forces. The impact of the developing theater arts, the influence of African Americans on the regionally distinct Southern culture, and the discovery of western lands and peoples that inspired new forms of cultural expression during the antebellum period are also described. ...Less