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Duke William of Normandy was crowned king of England on Christmas Day in 1066. His position wasn't secure. There were risings against Norman rule during every year from 1067 to 1070. ‘The Norman Kings’ looks at Norman rule in Britain after the Norman conquest. The Normans brought with them French language and French culture. By the fourteenth century, the well-educated Englishman would be able to speak English, his mother tongue, some Latin, and French. French was the practical language of law and estate management, as well as the language of song and verse. The Norman Conquest ushered in a period where England was in political terms a French colony, and after the thirteenth century also a cultural colony. ...Less

Where does the English language come from? While English is distantly related to both Latin and French, it is principally a Germanic language. ‘Origins’ provides a brief history of the English language, highlighting a number of substantial changes, which have radically altered its structure, vocabulary, pronunciation, and spelling. It begins with Old English (AD 650–1100), then moves on to Middle English (1100–1500), which saw the impact of the French language after the Norman Conquest of 1066. The Early Modern English period (1500–1750) witnessed the biggest impact of Latin upon English, while Late Modern English (1750–1900) resulted in an expansion of specialist vocabulary using Latin and Greek. ...Less

English government changed greatly between the reigns of Alfred and Edward, and so did English society. The mid-ninth to mid-eleventh centuries saw rapid growth in population and economy. ‘The End of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom’ charts the last few years of the Anglo-Saxon era and the changes that shaped the territory at the beginning of the medieval period. The familiar landmarks of rural England, villages, manor-houses, and churches, took shape mainly in the late Anglo-Saxon period. Alfred's dynasty, which had survived the Danes, Norsemen, and Danes again, succumbed to Norman invasion. It was the end of the road for the house of Wessex, but not for Anglo-Saxon society, nor for its institutions and culture. ...Less

‘Kingship, lordship, and government’ describes the development of ruling concepts and practices. Sacred kingship was born of a pact between dynastic rulers and the church. Rulers were expected to preserve Christian identity, protect the church, and promote justice and peace. Men who held public offices were often rewarded with entitlement to tax income from land. The system of lords, fiefs, and fealty formed the basis upon which long-term reorganization of land, wealth, and power took place. As kingdoms became larger, the burden of military defence and domestic administration became more onerous, and demanded central organization and record keeping, resulting in the development of parliaments. ...Less

‘People and their life styles’ explores the routines of family and community life in rural settlements and urban centres, in private, and in public. It shows that the people of the ‘Middle Ages’ were not so different from us. Social status and gender were highly consequential. Some activities were associated with kinship, others with the search for protection. People sometimes joined others in their efforts—in a trade guild or a religious fraternity—but they also sought out patronage and guidance, from individuals who were stronger, richer, or more expert than themselves. The habit of association was strong in the European tradition. ...Less

‘The “Middle Ages” in our daily lives’ discusses some of the legacies of this period: universities, the printed book, and song. The 12th century saw increased specialization in centres of learning under the auspices of emperors, kings, and popes. Universities were first created in Bologna and Paris, and offered the highest training in medicine, church law, and civil law. It trained those who went on to become the highest state officials and prelates of the church. The culture of young adulthood fostered in universities, and the possibilities for social mobility they afforded, is still seen today. The development of the printed book and the combination of poetry and music in song is also considered. ...Less